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Versuche von Griffith und Avery einfach erklärt - Zusammenfassung und Erklärung

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DNA als Träger der Erbinformationen: Griffith und Avery Experimente

Die bahnbrechenden Versuche von Griffith und Avery einfach erklärt zeigen, dass DNA der Träger genetischer Informationen ist. Griffiths Experiment mit Pneumokokken-Bakterien entdeckte das Phänomen der Transformation, während Averys Folgeexperiment bewies, dass speziell DNA, nicht Proteine, für die Übertragung von Erbinformationen verantwortlich ist.

• Griffith (1928) verwendete S- und R-Stämme von Pneumokokken, um die Transformation zu demonstrieren
• Avery (1944) isolierte DNA und Proteine, um die spezifische Rolle der DNA zu beweisen
• Diese Experimente legten den Grundstein für das moderne Verständnis der Genetik und DNA-Replikation

Griffith und Avery Experimente: DNA als Träger der Erbinformationen

Die Versuche von Griffith und Avery waren wegweisend für die Entdeckung der DNA als Träger der Erbinformationen. Diese Seite bietet eine detaillierte Zusammenfassung der Experimente von Frederick Griffith (1928) und Oswald Avery (1944), die fundamental für unser Verständnis der Genetik sind.

Griffiths Experiment (1928)

Griffith arbeitete mit der Bakteriengattung Pneumococcus und untersuchte zwei Stämme:

Vocabulary : S-Stamm: Bakterien mit Schleimkapsel, die tödliche Lungenentzündungen bei Mäusen verursachen R-Stamm: Bakterien mit rauer Oberfläche, die von weißen Blutkörperchen zerstört werden können

Griffith führte folgende Versuche durch:

• Verabreichung abgetöteter S-Formen: Die Maus überlebte, keine Erreger nachweisbar.
• Verabreichung lebender R-Formen: Die Maus überlebte, keine Erreger nachweisbar.
• Verabreichung abgetöteter S-Formen und lebender R-Formen: Die Maus starb, glatte Bakterien nachweisbar.

Highlight : Griffith entdeckte das Phänomen der Transformation - eine Merkmalsänderung der Erbinformationen der DNA.

Die Erklärung für dieses überraschende Ergebnis war, dass die DNA der lebenden R-Form sich verändert haben musste, sodass diese Zellen Schleimkapseln ausbilden konnten. Die Erbinformationen der S-Formen wurden durch Transformation auf die lebenden R-Formen übertragen.

Averys Experiment (1944)

Avery baute auf Griffiths Erkenntnissen auf und führte präzisere Experimente durch:

Er trennte DNA und Proteine von abgetöteten S-Zellen.

Der S-DNA wurden proteinspaltende Enzyme (Proteasen) und lebende R-Zellen hinzugefügt:

• S- und R-DNA nachweisbar
• Glatte und raue Bakterien bildeten sich

Den S-Proteinen wurden DNA-spaltende Enzyme (DNasen) und lebende R-Zellen hinzugefügt:

• Nur S- und R-Proteine nachweisbar
• Nur raue Bakterien bildeten sich

Definition : Transformation ist die Übertragung von genetischem Material zwischen Bakterien, die zu einer Veränderung des Phänotyps führt.

Averys Schlussfolgerung war eindeutig: DNA, nicht Proteine, ist der Träger der Erbinformationen. In der Mischung der DNA-Formen traten beide Bakterienarten auf, während in der Proteinmischung nur raue Bakterien entstanden.

Example : Um zwischen Transformation und Rückmutation zu unterscheiden, betrachtete man verschiedene Bakterientypen (I-S, II-S, III-S und ihre R-Varianten). Die Entstehung einer I-S-Zelle aus einer III-R-Zelle mit I-S-DNA beweist die Transformation, da sich nicht nur die Hüllenart, sondern auch die Oberfläche verändert hat.

Diese Griffith Avery Experimente legten den Grundstein für weitere bahnbrechende Forschungen wie das Hershey-Chase Experiment und das Meselson-Stahl-Experiment , die unser Verständnis der DNA-Replikation weiter vertieften.

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• Experiment von Griffith (1928)

Grundlegend für das Verständnis der späteren Molekularbiologie sind die Experiment e von Griffith und Avery. Hier erforschen die Forscher erstmalig den Zusammenhang zwischen DNA und Vererbung.

• Versuchsobjekt: Streptococcus pneumoniae

Die von Frederick Griffith ausgewählten Streptokokken kommen natürlicherweise in zwei Formen vor.

• löst Krankheit aus
• Bakterien sind durch spezielle Schleimkapsel geschützt und daher für das Immunsystem des infizierten Tiers nicht erkennbar
• nicht krankheitserregend

Griffith behandelte Mäuse mit beiden Streptokokken -Stämmen. Dabei führte er vor dem eigentlichen Experiment folgende Kontrollen durch:

Die Versuchstiere werden injiziert mit:

• S-Stamm => Maus stirbt
• R-Stamm => Maus überlebt
• hitzebehandelter (abgetöteter) S-Stamm => Maus überlebt.

Im Experiment mischte Griffith den hitzebehandelten und damit abgetöteten S-Stamm mit den unbehandelten (lebenden) R-Bakterien.

Ergebnis: die Maus stirbt.

Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, Maclyn McCarty (1944)

Fast 20 Jahre später führte die Forschergruppe um Oswald Avery das Experiment von Griffith (Versuchstiere: Mäuse behandelt mit Streptococcus ) nochmals in etwas veränderter Form durch. Avery und Kollegen reinigten verschiedene chemische Substanzen aus dem S-Stamm bzw. R-Stamm.

Isolierte Bestandteile des Streptococcus- Stamms S:

• Nukleinsäuren

Ergebnis: NUR NUKLEINSÄUREN FÜHREN ZUR TRANSFORMATION DES R-STAMMS.

Antworten, die sich aus Averys Versuchsansatz ergeben:

• Nukleinsäuren sind das transformierende Agens.
• Nukleinsäuren sind die chemische Grundlage des Erbmaterials.

Die DNA (Desoxyribonukleinsäure) ist die chemische Grundlage der Vererbung von Merkmalen.

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• Review Article
• Published: 10 February 2014

Bacterial transformation: distribution, shared mechanisms and divergent control

• Calum Johnston 1 , 2 ,
• Bernard Martin 1 , 2 ,
• Gwennaele Fichant 1 , 2 ,
• Patrice Polard 1 , 2 &
• Jean-Pierre Claverys 1 , 2  

Nature Reviews Microbiology volume  12 ,  pages 181–196 ( 2014 ) Cite this article

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• Bacterial genetics
• Bacterial transformation
• Cellular microbiology

This Review discusses natural bacterial transformation, highlighting the common and divergent features that exist in a phylogenetically diverse range of naturally transformable species.

Transformation is defined as the uptake of foreign DNA as single strands and its subsequent integration into the bacterial chromosome by homologous recombination. The mechanisms of uptake and integration, which are largely conserved among species, are highlighted and their conservation is explored.

In contrast to DNA-uptake mechanisms, the regulation of the ability to transform (which is known as competence) and the signals that induce competence vary widely between species; the range of mechanisms that are involved are discussed.

The roles of competence and imported DNA are also considered, and we argue that evidence so far generally points towards a role for transformation in the generation of genetic diversity or in chromosomal repair, rather than a nutritional role.

Finally, we explore the future prospects in this field of research, detailing several case studies of species that have recently been shown to be transformable and the potential difficulties in demonstrating transformability in a new species.

Natural bacterial transformation involves the internalization and chromosomal integration of DNA and has now been documented in ∼ 80 species. Recent advances have established that phylogenetically distant species share conserved uptake and processing proteins but differ in the inducing cues and regulatory mechanisms that are involved. In this Review, we highlight divergent and common principles that govern the transformation process in different bacteria. We discuss how this cumulative knowledge enables the prediction of new transformable species and supports the idea that the main role of internalized DNA is in the generation of genetic diversity or in chromosome repair rather than in nutrition.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Y. Quentin for his help with phylogenetic analysis and the construction of the species tree. The authors apologize to researchers whose work could not be specifically cited owing to space limitations.

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Calum Johnston, Bernard Martin, Gwennaele Fichant, Patrice Polard & Jean-Pierre Claverys

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Sun, D. Thesis (reference 153)

PowerPoint slides

Powerpoint slide for fig. 1, powerpoint slide for fig. 2, powerpoint slide for fig. 3, supplementary information, supplementary information s1 (table).

Naturally transformable bacterial species (XLSX 25 kb)

A term used to describe a form of reproduction in which genetic recombination occurs in the absence of meiosis, wherein one 'partner' is DNA.

The exchange of DNA sequences between identical or similar molecules. In the case of transformation, this involves the host chromosome and internalized single-stranded DNA (ssDNA).

A mechanism of horizontal gene transfer, in which DNA is accidentally transferred to a new host by a bacteriophage vector.

A mechanism of horizontal gene transfer by cell-to-cell contact that is primarily used for plasmid transfer but occasionally leads to chromosomal transfer.

Sets of genes that are under coordinated control by dedicated regulatory circuits.

A DNA duplex that is comprised of one strand of host chromosomal DNA and a complementary strand of internalized DNA.

Filamentous extracellular appendages that are present in some bacteria and that participate in different processes. Transformation pili promote the capture of exogenous DNA for uptake.

(alternative σ factors). Alternative RNA polymerase cofactors that direct the RNA polymerase to specific promoters.

Proteins that lack DNA-binding activity but can interact with and stimulate the activity of a transcription activator, thus indirectly promoting transcription.

A global response to DNA damage that enables DNA repair in bacteria.

A homologous gene that is derived by a speciation event from a single ancestral sequence. Orthologues typically carry out equivalent functions in closely related species.

(TCS). A system that comprises a histidine kinase and a response regulator; TCSs enable bacteria to sense signals (including those in the extracellular environment) and to regulate genes accordingly.

Small peptides that are produced by bacteria to inhibit the growth of other species (sometimes closely related species) to which the producer possesses an immunity mechanism.

A functional RNA molecule that is not translated into a protein.

(Cholerae autoinducer 1).The main quorum-sensing signalling molecule of the human pathogen Vibrio cholerae ; it has been identified as (S)-3-hydroxytridecan-4-one.

(Autoinducer 2). An inter-genera signalling molecule that is involved in quorum-sensing; it has been identified as the furanyl borate diester (2S,4S)-2-methyl-2,3,3,4-tetrahydroxytetrahydrofuran borate.

(Competence and sporulation factor). A signalling molecule that contributes to quorum-sensing in Bacillus subtilis . CSF is a pentapeptide that is produced from Phr precursor peptide, which is re-imported by the oligopeptide permease Opp.

Streptococci that produce the same competence-stimulating peptide (CSP) belong to the same pherotype.

The regulation of gene expression in response to cell density; secreted inducing molecules are sensed and induction occurs only when a critical cell density is reached.

A mechanism of cell–cell communication in which an inducing molecule is produced and can be sensed by neighbouring cells, resulting in coordinated gene expression. This mechanism is not necessarily dependent on cell density owing to the fact that inducer expression can be regulated by external signals.

A signalling molecule that is produced by bacteria in response to stress, which stimulates the expression of proteins involved in cellular processes that counteract the stress.

Non-proteinaceous chemical signalling molecules that are involved in cell–cell signalling and quorum-sensing.

(CCR). A regulatory mechanism in which the regulation of phosphotransferase systems enables the sequential utilization of carbon sources.

A DNA-damaging agent that crosslinks target DNA and is toxic to bacterial cells.

A synthetic compound that promotes the stalling of bacterial replication forks by depleting nucleotide pools.

The ability of competent pneumococcal cells to promote lysis of non-competent neighbouring pneumococci and closely related streptococci, liberating DNA for transformation and virulence factors.

One of a pair of homologous genes that are derived by a duplication event from a single sequence. Paralogous relationships occur both within and between genomes, and paralogues can evolve to have novel functions.

(R–M system). A bacterial immune system that protects cells from invading foreign DNA, such as that injected by bacteriophages. Most of these systems encode a restriction enzyme that cleaves specific sequences in unmethylated DNA and a methylase that methylates the host genome, thereby protecting it from restriction.

An alternative for competence in ComK-possessing bacteria (Bacilli), representing induction of the ComK regulon.

An alternative for competence in σ X -possessing bacteria (Streptococci), representing induction of the σ X regulon.

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Johnston, C., Martin, B., Fichant, G. et al. Bacterial transformation: distribution, shared mechanisms and divergent control. Nat Rev Microbiol 12 , 181–196 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3199

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Published : 10 February 2014

Issue Date : March 2014

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3199

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