kinds of evidence in essay

6 Types of Evidence in Writing

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Writing an essay is a lot like participating in a debate. You have a main point that you want to make, and you need to support it. So, the question is: how do you support your main point?

The best way is to provide evidence.

Evidence can come from many sources and take many forms, but generally speaking, there are six types of evidence.

Each type of evidence may carry more weight than others. Choosing which type of evidence to use depends on the purpose of the essay and the audience.

For example, for essays in psychology or sociology that will be read by professors, evidence from research papers and statistics will be suitable, and expected.

However, if writing for the general public, evidence in the form of quotes from experts or testimonials from people involved in the subject may be more effective.

Ideally, it is good to have a mix of the different types of evidence so that the essay is well-rounded.

Using various types of evidence also shows the reader that you have researched the topic thoroughly. That will add credibility to the essay as a whole and instill an impression that the author is competent and trustworthy.

Here is a brief description of the six main types of evidence.

You Might Also Like: Transition Words for Providing Evidence in Essays

Types of Evidence in Writing

1. anecdotal evidence.

Anecdotal evidence comes from personal experience. It can involve a story about something that happened to you, or an observation you made about friends, relatives, or other people.

An informal interview with someone affected by the topic you are writing about is also a form of anecdotal evidence. That interview may have been conducted by the author of the essay or presented on a news program.

Although it is not considered very strong evidence, it does have a purpose. Describing a personal experience early in the essay can help establish context, show relevance of the subject, or be a way to build a connection with the audience.

In some cases, anecdotal evidence can be quite effective. It can reveal deeply personal or emotional elements of a phenomenon that are very compelling. Not all essays need to be full of scientific references and statistics to be effective at making a point.

See More: 19 Anecdotal Evidence Examples

2. Testimonial Evidence

Offering the opinion of an expert is referred to as testimonial evidence. Their opinion can come from an interview or quote from a book or paper they authored.

The words of someone who is considered an expert in a subject can provide a lot of support to the point you are trying to make. It adds strength and shows that what you are saying is not just your opinion, but is also the opinion of someone that is recognized and respected in the subject.

If that expert has an advanced degree from a notable university, such as Princeton or Stanford, then make sure the reader knows that. Similarly, if they are the president or director of an institution that is heavily involved in the subject, then be sure to include those credentials as well.

If your essay is for an academic course, use proper citation. This often involves indicating the year of the quote, where it was published, and the page number where the quote comes from.

Finally, if quoting an expert, choose the quote carefully. Experts sometimes use language that is overly complex or contains jargon that many readers may not understand. Limiting the quote to 1 or 2 sentences is also a good idea.

3. Statistical Evidence

Statistical evidence involves presenting numbers that support your point. Statistics can be used to demonstrate the prevalence and seriousness of a phenomenon.

When used early in the essay, it informs the reader as to how important the topic is and can be an effective way to get the reader’s attention.

For example, citing the number of people that die each year because they weren’t wearing a seat belt, or the number of children suffering from malnutrition, tells the reader that the topic is serious.

In addition to stating statistics in the body of the essay, including a graph or two will help make the point easier to understand. A picture can be worth a thousand words also applies to graphs and charts.

Graphs and charts also create a sense of credibility and add an extra punch of strength to your arguments.

Statistics can also be used to counter common misconceptions. This is a good way to clear the air right away regarding an issue that may not be well understood or in which there has been a lot of misinformation presented previously.

When presenting statistics, establish credibility by citing the source. Make sure that source is reputable. Scientific publications or well-respected organizations such as the CDC are good examples.

If your essay is for an academic assignment, then be sure to follow the publication guidelines for that discipline. Papers in business, sociology, and law have different rules for how to cite sources.

As persuasive as statistics can be, beware that many readers may be suspicious. There is a belief among some people that statistics are often faked or manipulated. This is due, in part, to many people not understanding the peer-review process that occurs before scientific papers are published.

4. Textual Evidence

Textual evidence comes directly from a source document. This could be a literary work or historical document. It is frequently used in an argumentative essay or as part of a compare-and-contrast type of academic assignment.

For example, if conducting a character analysis of a character in a novel, then identifying key sentences that provide examples of their personality will help support your analysis.

There are several ways of incorporating textual evidence: quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing.

Quoting statements from the character themselves can be used to demonstrate their thought processes or personality flaws. Likewise, using the words of the author that describe the character will add support to your premise.

Paraphrasing involves conveying the points in the source document by using your own words. There is usually a degree of correspondence between the amount of text in the document and the paraphrased version. In other words, if your paraphrased version is longer than the section in the source document, then you should try again.

Summarizing involves condensing the text in the source document to its main points and highlighting the key takeaways you want the reader to focus on.

5. Analogical Evidence

An analogy is an example of a situation, but presented in a different context. Using an analogy is a great way to explain a complicated issue that is simpler and easier to digest.

Medical doctors often use analogies to describe health-related issues. For example, they might say that getting a yearly medical exam from your primary physician is like taking your car to the mechanic once a year to make sure everything is running okay.

One rule of thumb about analogies is that the simpler they are, the more easily understood. The analogy should have a degree of similarity with the issue being discussed, but, at the same time, be a bit different as well. Sorry about that; it’s a balance.

Be careful not to use an analogy that is too far-fetched. For example, comparing the human body to the universe is too much of a stretch. This might confuse the reader, make them feel frustrated because they don’t see the connection, and/or cause them to lose interest.

6. Hypothetical Evidence

Hypothetical evidence is presenting the reader with a “what if” kind of scenario. This is a great way to get the reader to consider possibilities that they may not have thought of previously.

One way to present a hypothetical is to pair it with a credible statistic. Ask the reader to consider what might happen in the context of those numbers.

Another strategy is to restate one of your arguments, and then present a hypothetical that aligns with that point. For example, if what you are saying is true, then X, Y, and Z may occur.

By providing a concrete hypothetical scenario, people can imagine what could happen. Opening a person’s mindset can be the first step towards an effective and persuasive essay.

There are many examples in history of phenomenon that people never thought possible, but later turned out to materialize. For example, climate change.

In the early days of climate science, the evidence was not readily available to a convincing degree to persuade the general public. However, extrapolating into the future through the use of hypotheticals can help people consider the possibility of fossil fuels causing climate crises.

The emotional dynamics activated when thinking about the future can help open some people’s eyes to different possibilities and generate concern. If only this had happened about 50 years ago.

Providing evidence for your main point in an essay can make it effective and persuasive. There are many types of evidence, and each one varies in terms of its strength and pertinence to the purpose of the essay.

In some situations, for example, anecdotal evidence and testimonials are sufficient to get a reader’s attention. In other situations, however, such as essays in the sciences, the reader will expect to see more than just opinions of the author.

Presenting statistics from reputable sources can add a lot of strength to an essay. While a lot of people are convinced by numbers, others are not.

Using quotes, either from experts or from a source document, are also effective ways to add support to the essay’s main point.

Analogies will help the reader understand a complex topic, while hypotheticals can be an effective way to get people to extend their thinking and consider what could happen if…

Incorporating several types of evidence is best. If all arguments in an essay only come from the author, it can come across as flimsy. A chair with three legs is better than a chair with two.

Bailey, S. (2003). Academic writing: A practical guide for students . Cheltenham, U.K.: Nelson Thornes Ltd.

Redman, P., & Maples, W. (2017). Good essay writing: A social sciences guide . Sage.

Savage, A., & Mayer, P. (2006). Effective academic writing: The short essay . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Starkey, L. B. (2004). How to write great essays . Learning Express.

Warburton, N. (2020). The basics of essay writing . Routledge.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
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Types of Evidence in Writing [Ultimate Guide + Examples]

When it comes to writing, the strength of your argument often hinges on the evidence you present.

Here is a quick summary of the types of evidence in writing:

Types of evidence in writing include statistical, testimonial, anecdotal, analogical, textual, visual, logical, experimental, historical, ethical, cultural, and practical evidence. Each type strengthens arguments by providing varied support, making your writing more credible and persuasive.

In this article, we’ll explore the different types of evidence in writing and how you can effectively use them to enhance your work.

What Is Evidence in Writing?

Table of Contents

Evidence in writing refers to the information, facts, or data used to support your arguments or claims.

It serves to back up your points, making your writing more credible and convincing.

Whether you’re writing a research paper or crafting a compelling blog post, incorporating evidence is crucial to establishing your authority and gaining the trust of your readers.

Evidence can take many forms, from statistics and expert testimonials to personal anecdotes and visual aids.

The key is to use a variety of evidence types to provide a well-rounded and robust argument.

By doing so, you can address different perspectives and strengthen your overall message.

Types of Evidence in Writing

There are several types of evidence you can use in your writing.

Each type has its strengths and can be particularly effective in different contexts.

Let’s explore the various types of evidence and how you can use them to your advantage.

1. Statistical Evidence

Statistical evidence involves using numbers and data to support your claims. This type of evidence is highly persuasive because it provides concrete, quantifiable proof that can be difficult to dispute.

• Charts and graphs

Detailed Examples: Imagine you’re writing an article about the benefits of remote work. You could include statistics from a recent survey showing that 85% of employees report higher productivity when working from home. Or, if you’re discussing the impact of climate change, you could use data from scientific studies that illustrate rising global temperatures over the past century.

2. Testimonial Evidence

Testimonial evidence includes quotes from experts or witnesses that support your argument.

This type of evidence can add credibility to your writing, especially when the testimonials come from respected authorities in the field.

• Expert opinions
• Witness statements

Detailed Examples: If you’re writing a piece on the effectiveness of a new medical treatment, you could include quotes from doctors who have successfully used the treatment with their patients. For a product review, testimonials from satisfied customers can provide valuable insights and persuade potential buyers.

3. Anecdotal Evidence

Anecdotal evidence involves using personal stories or experiences to illustrate a point.

While not as scientifically rigorous as statistical evidence, anecdotes can be powerful because they connect with readers on an emotional level.

• Personal anecdotes
• Case studies

Detailed Examples: Suppose you’re writing about overcoming adversity. Sharing a personal story about a challenging time in your life and how you persevered can inspire and resonate with readers. Similarly, in a business context, you might use case studies to demonstrate how a particular strategy helped a company achieve success.

4. Analogical Evidence

Analogical evidence uses analogies or comparisons to explain a concept.

This type of evidence can help make complex ideas more relatable and easier to understand for your audience.

Detailed Examples: If you’re explaining a complicated technical process, you might compare it to a more familiar concept. For example, you could explain the functioning of a computer network by comparing it to a postal system where data packets are like letters being sent through various routes to reach their destination.

5. Textual Evidence

Textual evidence involves using quotes or excerpts from texts to support your arguments.

This type of evidence is commonly used in literary analysis and research papers.

• Quotes from books
• Research papers

Detailed Examples: In a literary essay, you might analyze a novel by quoting specific passages that highlight the author’s use of symbolism. In a research paper, you could support your hypothesis by referencing studies published in reputable journals.

6. Visual Evidence

Visual evidence includes images, videos, or visual aids that help support your claims.

This type of evidence can be particularly effective in making your argument more engaging and easier to comprehend.

• Photographs
• Infographics

Detailed Examples: If you’re writing about the effects of plastic pollution, you could include photographs of polluted beaches to visually underscore the problem. Infographics can also be useful for presenting complex data in a visually appealing and easily digestible format.

7. Logical Evidence

Logical evidence involves using logical reasoning and facts to support your arguments.

This type of evidence is based on sound reasoning and helps establish a clear, rational argument.

• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Logical arguments

Detailed Examples: In an argumentative essay, you might use deductive reasoning to show that if all humans are mortal and Socrates is human, then Socrates must be mortal. Inductive reasoning could involve drawing conclusions based on observed patterns, such as predicting market trends based on historical data.

8. Experimental Evidence

Experimental evidence comes from experiments or scientific research.

This type of evidence is highly reliable because it is based on controlled, repeatable experiments.

• Lab results
• Field studies
• Scientific experiments

Detailed Examples: In a scientific paper, you might present the results of an experiment you conducted to test a hypothesis. For instance, if you’re studying the effects of a new drug, you could include data from clinical trials that demonstrate its efficacy and safety.

9. Historical Evidence

Historical evidence involves using historical events or data to support your arguments.

This type of evidence can provide valuable context and show how past events relate to current issues.

• Historical records
• Historical documents

Detailed Examples: If you’re writing about the importance of civil rights, you could reference key events in history, such as the Civil Rights Movement, to highlight progress and ongoing challenges. Using historical documents, like speeches or legal rulings, can also provide authoritative support for your arguments.

10. Ethical Evidence

Ethical evidence uses ethical considerations to support arguments.

This type of evidence appeals to the reader’s sense of right and wrong and can be particularly persuasive in discussions involving moral issues.

• Moral arguments
• Ethical dilemmas
• Values-based reasoning

Detailed Examples: In an essay on animal rights, you might argue that it is ethically wrong to subject animals to inhumane treatment, using ethical theories like utilitarianism to support your stance. Discussing the ethical implications of artificial intelligence in society can also highlight potential benefits and risks.

11. Cultural Evidence

Cultural evidence involves using cultural references and norms to support your arguments.

This type of evidence can be effective in showing how societal values and practices influence behaviors and attitudes.

• Cultural practices
• Societal norms
• Popular culture

Detailed Examples: If you’re writing about the impact of social media, you could reference cultural phenomena like viral trends and memes to illustrate how they shape public opinion. Discussing societal norms, such as gender roles, can also provide context for arguments about social change.

12. Practical Evidence

Practical evidence uses real-world examples and applications to support your arguments.

This type of evidence is useful for demonstrating how theoretical concepts can be applied in practice.

• Real-world applications
• Practical examples
• Demonstrations

Detailed Examples: In a business report, you might present case studies showing how companies successfully implemented new strategies to achieve their goals. Demonstrating practical applications, like how a new technology improves productivity, can also make your arguments more compelling.

Here is a video about some of the most powerful types of evidence in writing:

How to Use Evidence in Writing

Evidence isn’t one-size-fits-all. Different types of evidence are more effective in different contexts.

Understanding these use cases helps you choose the right evidence to strengthen your arguments and make your writing more compelling.

Academic Writing: In academic papers, statistical and textual evidence are vital. They provide the empirical data and scholarly references needed to back up your claims. Experimental evidence is also crucial for scientific papers, ensuring that your hypotheses are supported by reproducible results.

Business Writing: In business writing, such as reports and proposals, practical and testimonial evidence can make a significant impact. Real-world examples and customer testimonials lend credibility to your recommendations and strategies.

Creative Writing: For creative writing, anecdotal and analogical evidence often work best. Personal stories and analogies help convey deeper meanings and connect with readers on an emotional level.

Journalistic Writing: Journalistic pieces benefit from a mix of historical, visual, and ethical evidence. Historical context provides background, visual evidence engages readers, and ethical considerations highlight the moral implications of the story.

Persuasive Writing: In persuasive essays, logical and ethical evidence are key. Logical reasoning builds a solid foundation for your argument, while ethical evidence appeals to the reader’s sense of right and wrong, making your case more compelling.

Here’s a simple table summarizing different use cases for various types of writing evidence:

Common Mistakes Writers Make with Different Types of Evidence

Even with a variety of evidence at your disposal, it’s easy to make mistakes that can weaken your arguments.

Here are some common pitfalls and tips on how to avoid them:

1. Misinterpreting Statistical Evidence

Mistake: Presenting statistics without proper context or misinterpreting the data can mislead your readers. Statistics can be compelling, but they must be accurate and relevant.

How to Avoid: Always provide the source of your statistics and explain what the numbers mean. Ensure your interpretation aligns with the data. Cross-check your sources for credibility.

2. Overreliance on Testimonial Evidence

Mistake: Using too many testimonials can make your writing seem biased or less credible, especially if the testimonials are not from reputable sources.

How to Avoid: Balance testimonials with other types of evidence. Ensure that your sources are credible and relevant to your topic. Use testimonials to complement, not replace, factual evidence.

3. Anecdotal Evidence Overuse

Mistake: Relying too heavily on personal anecdotes can make your writing appear subjective and less persuasive, especially in academic or scientific contexts.

How to Avoid: Use anecdotes to illustrate a point or add a personal touch, but back them up with more objective evidence. Ensure that anecdotes are relevant and directly support your argument.

4. Ineffective Use of Analogical Evidence

Mistake: Analogies that are too complex or not directly related to the topic can confuse readers instead of clarifying your point.

How to Avoid: Choose analogies that are simple and relatable. Ensure that the comparison clearly illustrates your point and enhances understanding.

5. Misquoting or Misusing Textual Evidence

Mistake: Taking quotes out of context or misinterpreting the original meaning can undermine your credibility.

How to Avoid: Always provide context for quotes and ensure your interpretation is accurate. Cite sources correctly to maintain academic integrity.

6. Overloading with Visual Evidence

Mistake: Using too many images, charts, or videos can overwhelm readers and detract from the main message.

How to Avoid: Use visual evidence selectively to support key points. Ensure visuals are high-quality, relevant, and well-explained.

7. Logical Fallacies in Logical Evidence

Mistake: Logical fallacies, such as faulty generalizations or circular reasoning, can weaken your argument and make it less convincing.

How to Avoid: Build your arguments on sound reasoning and evidence. Be aware of common logical fallacies and avoid them in your writing.

8. Ignoring Ethical Implications

Mistake: Failing to address the ethical dimensions of your argument can make your writing appear one-sided or insensitive.

How to Avoid: Consider the ethical implications of your topic. Use ethical evidence to provide a balanced perspective and address potential concerns.

9. Using Outdated Historical Evidence

Mistake: Relying on outdated or irrelevant historical evidence can weaken your argument and make it less convincing.

How to Avoid: Use up-to-date and relevant historical evidence. Provide context to show how past events relate to your current argument.

10. Cultural Evidence Stereotyping

Mistake: Using cultural evidence that reinforces stereotypes or oversimplifies complex cultural issues can be offensive and reduce credibility.

How to Avoid: Approach cultural evidence with sensitivity and respect. Ensure that your references are accurate and nuanced.

11. Practical Evidence That Lacks Relevance

Mistake: Including practical examples that are not directly related to your argument can confuse readers and weaken your message.

How to Avoid: Choose practical evidence that is directly relevant and clearly supports your main points. Provide clear explanations of how the evidence applies.

Final Thoughts: Types of Evidence in Writing

Evidence is just one part of the writing puzzle.

You’ll also need to know how to come up with a hypothesis, write topic sentences, deploy counterclaim language, and more.

Read This Next:

• How to Write a Hypothesis [31 Tips + Examples]
• How to Write a Topic Sentence (30+ Tips & Examples)
• How to Describe a Graph in Writing [+ 22 Examples]
• 50 Best Counterclaim Transition Words (+ Examples)
• What Is A Warrant In Writing? (Explained + 20 Examples)

What this handout is about

This handout will provide a broad overview of gathering and using evidence. It will help you decide what counts as evidence, put evidence to work in your writing, and determine whether you have enough evidence. It will also offer links to additional resources.

Introduction

Many papers that you write in college will require you to make an argument ; this means that you must take a position on the subject you are discussing and support that position with evidence. It’s important that you use the right kind of evidence, that you use it effectively, and that you have an appropriate amount of it. If, for example, your philosophy professor didn’t like it that you used a survey of public opinion as your primary evidence in your ethics paper, you need to find out more about what philosophers count as good evidence. If your instructor has told you that you need more analysis, suggested that you’re “just listing” points or giving a “laundry list,” or asked you how certain points are related to your argument, it may mean that you can do more to fully incorporate your evidence into your argument. Comments like “for example?,” “proof?,” “go deeper,” or “expand” in the margins of your graded paper suggest that you may need more evidence. Let’s take a look at each of these issues—understanding what counts as evidence, using evidence in your argument, and deciding whether you need more evidence.

What counts as evidence?

Before you begin gathering information for possible use as evidence in your argument, you need to be sure that you understand the purpose of your assignment. If you are working on a project for a class, look carefully at the assignment prompt. It may give you clues about what sorts of evidence you will need. Does the instructor mention any particular books you should use in writing your paper or the names of any authors who have written about your topic? How long should your paper be (longer works may require more, or more varied, evidence)? What themes or topics come up in the text of the prompt? Our handout on understanding writing assignments can help you interpret your assignment. It’s also a good idea to think over what has been said about the assignment in class and to talk with your instructor if you need clarification or guidance.

What matters to instructors?

Instructors in different academic fields expect different kinds of arguments and evidence—your chemistry paper might include graphs, charts, statistics, and other quantitative data as evidence, whereas your English paper might include passages from a novel, examples of recurring symbols, or discussions of characterization in the novel. Consider what kinds of sources and evidence you have seen in course readings and lectures. You may wish to see whether the Writing Center has a handout regarding the specific academic field you’re working in—for example, literature , sociology , or history .

What are primary and secondary sources?

A note on terminology: many researchers distinguish between primary and secondary sources of evidence (in this case, “primary” means “first” or “original,” not “most important”). Primary sources include original documents, photographs, interviews, and so forth. Secondary sources present information that has already been processed or interpreted by someone else. For example, if you are writing a paper about the movie “The Matrix,” the movie itself, an interview with the director, and production photos could serve as primary sources of evidence. A movie review from a magazine or a collection of essays about the film would be secondary sources. Depending on the context, the same item could be either a primary or a secondary source: if I am writing about people’s relationships with animals, a collection of stories about animals might be a secondary source; if I am writing about how editors gather diverse stories into collections, the same book might now function as a primary source.

Where can I find evidence?

Here are some examples of sources of information and tips about how to use them in gathering evidence. Ask your instructor if you aren’t sure whether a certain source would be appropriate for your paper.

Print and electronic sources

Books, journals, websites, newspapers, magazines, and documentary films are some of the most common sources of evidence for academic writing. Our handout on evaluating print sources will help you choose your print sources wisely, and the library has a tutorial on evaluating both print sources and websites. A librarian can help you find sources that are appropriate for the type of assignment you are completing. Just visit the reference desk at Davis or the Undergraduate Library or chat with a librarian online (the library’s IM screen name is undergradref).

Observation

Sometimes you can directly observe the thing you are interested in, by watching, listening to, touching, tasting, or smelling it. For example, if you were asked to write about Mozart’s music, you could listen to it; if your topic was how businesses attract traffic, you might go and look at window displays at the mall.

An interview is a good way to collect information that you can’t find through any other type of research. An interview can provide an expert’s opinion, biographical or first-hand experiences, and suggestions for further research.

Surveys allow you to find out some of what a group of people thinks about a topic. Designing an effective survey and interpreting the data you get can be challenging, so it’s a good idea to check with your instructor before creating or administering a survey.

Experiments

Experimental data serve as the primary form of scientific evidence. For scientific experiments, you should follow the specific guidelines of the discipline you are studying. For writing in other fields, more informal experiments might be acceptable as evidence. For example, if you want to prove that food choices in a cafeteria are affected by gender norms, you might ask classmates to undermine those norms on purpose and observe how others react. What would happen if a football player were eating dinner with his teammates and he brought a small salad and diet drink to the table, all the while murmuring about his waistline and wondering how many fat grams the salad dressing contained?

Personal experience

Using your own experiences can be a powerful way to appeal to your readers. You should, however, use personal experience only when it is appropriate to your topic, your writing goals, and your audience. Personal experience should not be your only form of evidence in most papers, and some disciplines frown on using personal experience at all. For example, a story about the microscope you received as a Christmas gift when you were nine years old is probably not applicable to your biology lab report.

Using evidence in an argument

Does evidence speak for itself.

Absolutely not. After you introduce evidence into your writing, you must say why and how this evidence supports your argument. In other words, you have to explain the significance of the evidence and its function in your paper. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has with a larger claim or argument: evidence is always evidence for or against something, and you have to make that link clear.

As writers, we sometimes assume that our readers already know what we are talking about; we may be wary of elaborating too much because we think the point is obvious. But readers can’t read our minds: although they may be familiar with many of the ideas we are discussing, they don’t know what we are trying to do with those ideas unless we indicate it through explanations, organization, transitions, and so forth. Try to spell out the connections that you were making in your mind when you chose your evidence, decided where to place it in your paper, and drew conclusions based on it. Remember, you can always cut prose from your paper later if you decide that you are stating the obvious.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself about a particular bit of evidence:

• OK, I’ve just stated this point, but so what? Why is it interesting? Why should anyone care?
• What does this information imply?
• What are the consequences of thinking this way or looking at a problem this way?
• I’ve just described what something is like or how I see it, but why is it like that?
• I’ve just said that something happens—so how does it happen? How does it come to be the way it is?
• Why is this information important? Why does it matter?
• How is this idea related to my thesis? What connections exist between them? Does it support my thesis? If so, how does it do that?
• Can I give an example to illustrate this point?

Answering these questions may help you explain how your evidence is related to your overall argument.

How can I incorporate evidence into my paper?

There are many ways to present your evidence. Often, your evidence will be included as text in the body of your paper, as a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Sometimes you might include graphs, charts, or tables; excerpts from an interview; or photographs or illustrations with accompanying captions.

When you quote, you are reproducing another writer’s words exactly as they appear on the page. Here are some tips to help you decide when to use quotations:

• Quote if you can’t say it any better and the author’s words are particularly brilliant, witty, edgy, distinctive, a good illustration of a point you’re making, or otherwise interesting.
• Quote if you are using a particularly authoritative source and you need the author’s expertise to back up your point.
• Quote if you are analyzing diction, tone, or a writer’s use of a specific word or phrase.
• Quote if you are taking a position that relies on the reader’s understanding exactly what another writer says about the topic.

Be sure to introduce each quotation you use, and always cite your sources. See our handout on quotations for more details on when to quote and how to format quotations.

Like all pieces of evidence, a quotation can’t speak for itself. If you end a paragraph with a quotation, that may be a sign that you have neglected to discuss the importance of the quotation in terms of your argument. It’s important to avoid “plop quotations,” that is, quotations that are just dropped into your paper without any introduction, discussion, or follow-up.

Paraphrasing

When you paraphrase, you take a specific section of a text and put it into your own words. Putting it into your own words doesn’t mean just changing or rearranging a few of the author’s words: to paraphrase well and avoid plagiarism, try setting your source aside and restating the sentence or paragraph you have just read, as though you were describing it to another person. Paraphrasing is different than summary because a paraphrase focuses on a particular, fairly short bit of text (like a phrase, sentence, or paragraph). You’ll need to indicate when you are paraphrasing someone else’s text by citing your source correctly, just as you would with a quotation.

When might you want to paraphrase?

• Paraphrase when you want to introduce a writer’s position, but their original words aren’t special enough to quote.
• Paraphrase when you are supporting a particular point and need to draw on a certain place in a text that supports your point—for example, when one paragraph in a source is especially relevant.
• Paraphrase when you want to present a writer’s view on a topic that differs from your position or that of another writer; you can then refute writer’s specific points in your own words after you paraphrase.
• Paraphrase when you want to comment on a particular example that another writer uses.
• Paraphrase when you need to present information that’s unlikely to be questioned.

When you summarize, you are offering an overview of an entire text, or at least a lengthy section of a text. Summary is useful when you are providing background information, grounding your own argument, or mentioning a source as a counter-argument. A summary is less nuanced than paraphrased material. It can be the most effective way to incorporate a large number of sources when you don’t have a lot of space. When you are summarizing someone else’s argument or ideas, be sure this is clear to the reader and cite your source appropriately.

Statistics, data, charts, graphs, photographs, illustrations

Sometimes the best evidence for your argument is a hard fact or visual representation of a fact. This type of evidence can be a solid backbone for your argument, but you still need to create context for your reader and draw the connections you want them to make. Remember that statistics, data, charts, graph, photographs, and illustrations are all open to interpretation. Guide the reader through the interpretation process. Again, always, cite the origin of your evidence if you didn’t produce the material you are using yourself.

Do I need more evidence?

Let’s say that you’ve identified some appropriate sources, found some evidence, explained to the reader how it fits into your overall argument, incorporated it into your draft effectively, and cited your sources. How do you tell whether you’ve got enough evidence and whether it’s working well in the service of a strong argument or analysis? Here are some techniques you can use to review your draft and assess your use of evidence.

Make a reverse outline

A reverse outline is a great technique for helping you see how each paragraph contributes to proving your thesis. When you make a reverse outline, you record the main ideas in each paragraph in a shorter (outline-like) form so that you can see at a glance what is in your paper. The reverse outline is helpful in at least three ways. First, it lets you see where you have dealt with too many topics in one paragraph (in general, you should have one main idea per paragraph). Second, the reverse outline can help you see where you need more evidence to prove your point or more analysis of that evidence. Third, the reverse outline can help you write your topic sentences: once you have decided what you want each paragraph to be about, you can write topic sentences that explain the topics of the paragraphs and state the relationship of each topic to the overall thesis of the paper.

For tips on making a reverse outline, see our handout on organization .

Color code your paper

You will need three highlighters or colored pencils for this exercise. Use one color to highlight general assertions. These will typically be the topic sentences in your paper. Next, use another color to highlight the specific evidence you provide for each assertion (including quotations, paraphrased or summarized material, statistics, examples, and your own ideas). Lastly, use another color to highlight analysis of your evidence. Which assertions are key to your overall argument? Which ones are especially contestable? How much evidence do you have for each assertion? How much analysis? In general, you should have at least as much analysis as you do evidence, or your paper runs the risk of being more summary than argument. The more controversial an assertion is, the more evidence you may need to provide in order to persuade your reader.

Play devil’s advocate, act like a child, or doubt everything

This technique may be easiest to use with a partner. Ask your friend to take on one of the roles above, then read your paper aloud to them. After each section, pause and let your friend interrogate you. If your friend is playing devil’s advocate, they will always take the opposing viewpoint and force you to keep defending yourself. If your friend is acting like a child, they will question every sentence, even seemingly self-explanatory ones. If your friend is a doubter, they won’t believe anything you say. Justifying your position verbally or explaining yourself will force you to strengthen the evidence in your paper. If you already have enough evidence but haven’t connected it clearly enough to your main argument, explaining to your friend how the evidence is relevant or what it proves may help you to do so.

Common questions and additional resources

• I have a general topic in mind; how can I develop it so I’ll know what evidence I need? And how can I get ideas for more evidence? See our handout on brainstorming .
• Who can help me find evidence on my topic? Check out UNC Libraries .
• I’m writing for a specific purpose; how can I tell what kind of evidence my audience wants? See our handouts on audience , writing for specific disciplines , and particular writing assignments .
• How should I read materials to gather evidence? See our handout on reading to write .
• How can I make a good argument? Check out our handouts on argument and thesis statements .
• How do I tell if my paragraphs and my paper are well-organized? Review our handouts on paragraph development , transitions , and reorganizing drafts .
• How do I quote my sources and incorporate those quotes into my text? Our handouts on quotations and avoiding plagiarism offer useful tips.
• How do I cite my evidence? See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .
• I think that I’m giving evidence, but my instructor says I’m using too much summary. How can I tell? Check out our handout on using summary wisely.
• I want to use personal experience as evidence, but can I say “I”? We have a handout on when to use “I.”

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 2016. Everything’s an Argument , 7th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Miller, Richard E., and Kurt Spellmeyer. 2016. The New Humanities Reader , 5th ed. Boston: Cengage.

University of Maryland. 2019. “Research Using Primary Sources.” Research Guides. Last updated October 28, 2019. https://lib.guides.umd.edu/researchusingprimarysources .

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Encyclopedia for Writers

Composing with ai, types of evidence – how to write and speak clearly & persuasively.

• © 2024 by Joseph M. Moxley - Founder, Writing Commons

Types of evidence encompass a range of information sources , from factual data to personal anecdotes, each serving different rhetorical purposes. This article examines various evidence types and their appropriate use across different methodological communities and rhetorical situations . By understanding these distinctions, you'll enhance your ability to select and present compelling evidence tailored to your specific audience and purpose, ultimately strengthening your arguments and communication effectiveness.

Table of Contents

Related Concepts

Concrete Language, Sensory Language ; Exemplification

What Are the Main Types of Evidence in Writing?

Evidence can take many forms, including factual, primary, secondary/textual, expert testimony, anecdotal, statistical, analogical, logical, empirical, circumstantial, physical, photographic/video, audio, documentary, and opinion-based evidence. Each type serves different purposes and carries varying weight depending on the context and audience.

Here’s an overview of these various evidence types:

I apologize for the misunderstanding! Here’s the information formatted as a proper table:

Why Do the Different Types of Evidence Matter?

To communicate with clarity — to avoid vague language or unnecessarily abstract writing — writers, speakers, and researchers need to provide evidence . This need spans a wide range of contexts and genres, from academic papers and scientific reports to journalistic articles, legal arguments, and even everyday conversations.

1. Semiotics: The Need for Explication in Communication

• In speech and writing, evidence acts as a crucial bridge between a writer’s ideas and the reader’s understanding, a concept rooted in semiotics — the study of how signs and symbols convey meaning. Just as road signs help drivers navigate, evidence serves as a signpost that guides readers through complex ideas, ensuring clarity . Without these signals—whether data, examples, or authoritative sources—abstract concepts remain elusive, and the writer’s message may be misunderstood. By using evidence effectively, writers translate abstract thoughts into clear, accessible ideas that their audience can readily grasp.

2. Meeting Discourse Conventions and Audience Expectations

• Academic and professional writers follow established discourse conventions , which dictate how arguments should be structured and supported . These conventions often require writers to provide different forms of evidence—whether empirical data , theoretical analysis , or references to prior scholarship —to align with the expectations of experts and practitioners in the field. Following these norms ensures that the writing is credible, rigorous, and appropriately situated within a specific discourse community.

3. Establishing and Demonstrating Authority

• The evidence a writer selects plays a crucial role in building their authority . In academic settings, authority is often linked to how effectively a writer can integrate credible sources, reference previous research, or present new data. Demonstrating a command of relevant evidence reassures the audience that the writer has the expertise to speak on the subject, which, in turn, enhances the persuasive power of the argument.

4. Substantiating Claims According to Academic Conventions

• In academia, it is insufficient to present an argument without supporting it with evidence . Writers are expected to substantiate their claims with credible and relevant sources, ranging from peer-reviewed studies to primary data. The type of evidence used will depend on the discipline—scientific fields often require empirical data, while humanities may rely on textual analysis or historical documents. The key is that evidence must be appropriate to the field and sufficiently robust to support the claim being made.

5. Engaging in the Broader Scholarly Conversation

• Using evidence effectively allows writers to connect their work to existing scholarship and ongoing debates . Writers in academic and professional settings are not working in isolation; rather, they contribute to a larger body of knowledge. By citing and integrating relevant evidence, they demonstrate that their ideas are informed by, and contributing to, this broader discourse. This strengthens the relevance and impact of their writing within their field.

6. Maintaining Ethical Standards

• The proper use of evidence is also a matter of ethical writing. Misrepresenting or selectively using evidence to support claims can lead to misinformation or misleading conclusions. Academic integrity demands that writers use evidence transparently, giving proper credit to original sources and ensuring that evidence is accurately presented to the audience.

How to Determine What Type of Evidence Will Be Most Appropriate

You can determine the type of information you need to provide to your audience in order to be clear and persuasive by engaging in rhetorical reasoning and rhetorical analysis. As outlined below, you need to consider who your audience is in order to determine the evidence you need to provide to be clear and convincing.

Different fields and disciplines have varying standards for what constitutes valid and persuasive evidence. This is deeply tied to the epistemology – the theory of knowledge – of each field . Here’s how different types of evidence are generally valued across various methodological approaches:

Scholars, Theorists, Historians, Philosophers, Literary Critics, Professional and Technical Communication Researchers

Scholarly and theoretical research often relies heavily on textual evidence, logical argumentation, and the interpretation of primary sources. The emphasis is on building upon existing knowledge and constructing well-reasoned arguments.

Scientists, Statisticians, Data Scientists, Economists, Quantitative Researchers, PTC Analysts

Positivist empirical research, common in natural sciences and quantitative social sciences, places high value on observable, measurable evidence. Statistical analysis and replicable experiments are key, while anecdotal or opinion-based evidence is generally disregarded.

Social Scientists, Ethnographers, Cultural Anthropologists, Sociologists, Qualitative Researchers, PTC Practitioners

Qualitative research, often associated with post-positivist and constructivist approaches, values evidence that provides rich, contextual understanding. Personal narratives, in-depth interviews, and observational data are highly valued, while statistical evidence is less emphasized.

Designers, Creatives, Entrepreneurs, Professional and Technical Writers, User Experience (UX) Researchers

Design and creative fields often rely on visual evidence, analogies, and user feedback. The emphasis is on innovative problem-solving and creating effective, user-centered designs rather than on traditional scientific evidence.

Everyday Conversation

In everyday conversations, people often rely on personal experiences, opinions, and easily shareable information. While factual evidence is valued, it’s not always verified, and more formal types of evidence (like statistical or documentary) are less commonly used.

The Elements of Style

Brevity - Say More with Less

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Coherence - How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Flow - How to Create Flow in Writing

Inclusivity - Inclusive Language

The Elements of Style - The DNA of Powerful Writing

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9.1 Types of Evidence in Academic Arguments

All academic writers use evidence to support their claims. However, different writing tasks in different fields require different types of evidence. Often, a combination of different types of evidence is required to support and develop a point adequately.

A writer uses evidence to support or defend his or her argument, and only valid and credible evidence is enough to make an argument strong.

Evidence is not simply “facts.” Evidence is not simply “quotes.”

As you develop your research-supported essay, consider not only what types of evidence might support your ideas but also what types of evidence will be considered valid or credible according to the academic discipline or academic audience for which you are writing.

Evidence in the Humanities: Literature, Art, Film, Music, Philosophy

• Scholarly essays that analyze original works
• Details from an image, a film, or other work of art
• Passages from a musical composition
• Passages of text, including poetry

Evidence in the Humanities: History

• Primary Sources (photos, letters, maps, official documents, etc.)
• Other books or articles that interpret primary sources or other evidence.

Evidence in the Social Sciences: Psychology, Sociology, Political Science, Anthropology

• Books or articles that interpret data and results from other people’s original experiments or studies.
• Results from one’s field research (including interviews, surveys, observations, etc.)
• Data from one’s experiments
• Statistics derived from large studies

Evidence in the Sciences: Biology, Chemistry, Physics

• Data from the author of the paper’s experiments

What remains consistent no matter the discipline in which you are writing, however, is that “evidence” NEVER speaks for itself—you must integrate it into your argument or claim and demonstrate that the evidence supports your thesis. In addition, be alert to evidence that seems to contradict your claims or offers a counterargument: rebutting that counterargument can be powerful evidence for your claim. You can also make evidence that isn’t there  an integral part of your argument, too. If you can’t find the evidence you think you need, ask yourself why it seems to be lacking, or if its absence adds a new dimension to your thinking about the topic. Remember,  evidence is not the piling up of facts or quotes: evidence is only one component of a strong, well supported, well-argued, and well-written composition.

Attributions

A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing  by Melanie Gagich & Emilie Zickel is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

This page contains material from “About Writing: A Guide” by Robin Jeffrey,  OpenOregon Educational Resources , Higher Education Coordination Commission: Office of Community Colleges and Workforce Development is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

This chapter has additions, edits, and organization by James Charles Devlin.

9.1 Types of Evidence in Academic Arguments Copyright © by James Charles Devlin is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing Tutorial Services

Using evidence.

Like a lawyer in a jury trial, a writer must convince her audience of the validity of her argument by using evidence effectively. As a writer, you must also use evidence to persuade your readers to accept your claims. But how do you use evidence to your advantage? By leading your reader through your reasoning.

The types of evidence you use change from discipline to discipline--you might use quotations from a poem or a literary critic, for example, in a literature paper; you might use data from an experiment in a lab report.

The process of putting together your argument is called analysis --it interprets evidence in order to support, test, and/or refine a claim . The chief claim in an analytical essay is called the thesis . A thesis provides the controlling idea for a paper and should be original (that is, not completely obvious), assertive, and arguable. A strong thesis also requires solid evidence to support and develop it because without evidence, a claim is merely an unsubstantiated idea or opinion.

This Web page will cover these basic issues (you can click or scroll down to a particular topic):

• Incorporating evidence effectively.
• Integrating quotations smoothly.
• Citing your sources.

Incorporating Evidence Into Your Essay

When should you incorporate evidence.

Once you have formulated your claim, your thesis (see the WTS pamphlet, " How to Write a Thesis Statement ," for ideas and tips), you should use evidence to help strengthen your thesis and any assertion you make that relates to your thesis. Here are some ways to work evidence into your writing:

• Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.
• Present evidence that contradicts your stance, and then argue against (refute) that evidence and therefore strengthen your position.
• Use sources against each other, as if they were experts on a panel discussing your proposition.
• Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim.

Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence

In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your essay by following this pattern:

• State your claim.
• Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
• Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim.

To see the differences between strong and weak uses of evidence, here are two paragraphs.

Weak use of evidence

Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Everything is about what we want.

This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn't explain the connection.

The same evidence can be used to support the same claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim and evidence, and some analysis of the evidence cited.

Stronger use of evidence

Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.

This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim.

Using Quotations: A Special Type of Evidence

One effective way to support your claim is to use quotations. However, because quotations involve someone else's words, you need to take special care to integrate this kind of evidence into your essay. Here are two examples using quotations, one less effective and one more so.

Ineffective Use of Quotation

Today, we are too self-centered. "We are consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity" (Gleick 148). Everything is about what we want.

This example is ineffective because the quotation is not integrated with the writer's ideas. Notice how the writer has dropped the quotation into the paragraph without making any connection between it and the claim. Furthermore, she has not discussed the quotation's significance, which makes it difficult for the reader to see the relationship between the evidence and the writer's point.

A More Effective Use of Quotation

Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much any more as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence, as James Gleick says in his book, Faster . "We are consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity" (148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.

The second example is more effective because it follows the guidelines for incorporating evidence into an essay. Notice, too, that it uses a lead-in phrase (". . . as James Gleick says in his book, Faster ") to introduce the direct quotation. This lead-in phrase helps to integrate the quotation with the writer's ideas. Also notice that the writer discusses and comments upon the quotation immediately afterwards, which allows the reader to see the quotation's connection to the writer's point.

REMEMBER: Discussing the significance of your evidence develops and expands your paper!

Citing Your Sources

Evidence appears in essays in the form of quotations and paraphrasing. Both forms of evidence must be cited in your text. Citing evidence means distinguishing other writers' information from your own ideas and giving credit to your sources. There are plenty of general ways to do citations. Note both the lead-in phrases and the punctuation (except the brackets) in the following examples:

Quoting: According to Source X, "[direct quotation]" ([date or page #]).

Paraphrasing: Although Source Z argues that [his/her point in your own words], a better way to view the issue is [your own point] ([citation]).

Summarizing: In her book, Source P's main points are Q, R, and S [citation].

Your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and are the most effective way of interpreting the evidence.

Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper

• Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
• Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
• Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
• Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper's main claims?
• Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
• Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

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